Designing a sustainable forest garden

Designing a sustainable forest garden

From fruit plantings to a self-sustaining ecosystem

A sustainable forest garden is a multi-layered natural and economic system in which fruit trees, nut crops, shrubs, herbs, mushrooms, animals, water, and soil organisms form an interconnected community.

Unlike a traditional garden, a forest garden should not consist only of rows of fruit trees that depend on constant watering, soil cultivation, fertilizers and chemical protection.

Its task is to simultaneously:

produce food;

restore the soil;

retain water;

maintain biodiversity;

create a favorable microclimate;

preserve genetic resources;

provide a person with a stable income;

reduce the need for external resources;

renew themselves independently.

The main principle of DREVO:

A forest garden is designed not as a collection of individual plants, but as a developing ecosystem in which each element performs several functions and supports other elements.

A forest garden is not a complete structure created in a single season. It develops gradually and goes through stages of development—from water and soil restoration to a mature, multi-layered productive system.

1. How does a forest garden differ from a regular garden?

A traditional industrial garden typically focuses on:

one or more main crops;

the same age of trees;

standardized distances;

mechanized care;

centralized irrigation;

regular fertilization;

chemical protection;

obtaining the most uniform harvest possible.

The forest garden is built according to a different logic.

It contains:

plants of different ages;

several vertical tiers;

different types of root systems;

local and cultural species;

areas of different humidity;

woody, shrubby and herbaceous communities;

natural regeneration;

soil cover;

mushroom nets;

dead wood;

animal habitats;

water and open spaces.

Comparison of systems

A forest garden doesn't preclude technology, mechanization, or professional management. It changes the very foundation of the farm: technology should support the ecosystem, not destroy it for the sake of a short-term harvest.

2. Conditions for creating a forest garden

Before design begins, it is necessary to confirm that the area is suitable for food and commercial use.

The following are checked:

soil safety;

water quality;

pollution level;

presence of active erosion;

risk of landslides;

salinization;

water balance;

soil profile depth;

microclimate;

fire hazard;

legal status of land;

accessibility of the territory;

possibility of long-term care.

You cannot start creating a food forest garden if:

the source of pollution continues to operate;

the water is not fit for purpose;

the area is subject to active erosion;

there is no safe water regime;

the soil is critically saline;

the responsible custodian has not been determined;

there is no way to provide care for young plantings.

In such cases, a restorative or remedial stage is carried out first.

3. Objectives of the forest garden

Before selecting plants, it is necessary to determine the objectives of the system.

A forest garden can perform several functions simultaneously.

Food function

Production:

fruits;

nuts;

berries;

vegetables;

greens;

spices;

mushrooms;

honey;

medicinal raw materials;

feed;

livestock products.

Ecological function

soil restoration;

water retention;

reduction of erosion;

carbon accumulation;

creating an environment for animals;

support for pollinators;

restoration of ecological corridors.

Economic function

sale of fresh produce;

processing;

storage;

nursery;

seed production;

agritourism;

educational programs;

scientific research.

Social function

joint work;

training;

cooperative;

access to safe food;

creation of jobs;

knowledge transfer;

strengthening the local community.

Cultural function

preservation of old varieties;

restoration of traditional farming methods;

support of local cuisine;

landscape preservation;

formation of connections between generations and the territory.

Sustainability occurs when environmental, economic and social functions do not contradict each other.

4. Main stages of design

The design of a forest garden includes the following sequential stages:

Defining goals.

Territory diagnostics.

Allocation of functional zones.

Design of water system.

Soil restoration.

Formation of a protective framework.

Selection of species and varieties.

Creation of plant guilds.

Planning of paths and infrastructure.

Staged planting.

Organization of care and harvesting.

Monitoring and adaptation of the project.

Disruption of this sequence results in plants being planted before the conditions necessary for their long-term survival are formed.

5. Zoning of the territory

A forest garden cannot be designed as a uniform planting area.

The territory is divided into zones according to:

frequency of visits;

intensity of care;

humidity;

illumination;

relief;

soil type;

economic function;

conservation value.

Zone 0 - Control Center

This may include:

residential or administrative building;

training center;

office;

laboratory;

kitchen;

control point;

monitoring system.

This is where data is collected and decisions are made.

Zone 1 - Heavy Use

Located near the center.

Includes:

green;

spicy plants;

nurseries;

small greenhouses;

frequently picked berries;

compost systems;

technical sites;

tools;

water containers.

This area requires regular attention.

Zone 2 - main productive forest garden

Contains:

fruit trees;

nut crops;

berry bushes;

perennial vegetables;

medicinal plants;

mushrooms;

pollination stripes.

It is designed for easy maintenance and harvesting.

Zone 3 - Expanded Production System

May include:

large walnut trees;

tree crops;

feeding areas;

haystack;

pasture forests;

production groves;

plants for processing.

The care here is less intensive.

Zone 4 - Semi-managed natural area

Used for:

collection of wild-growing products;

wood;

seeds;

mushrooms;

observations;

limited grazing;

preservation of natural succession.

Zone 5 - Natural Core

This is an area of ​​minimal intervention.

Its tasks:

biodiversity conservation;

protection of rare species;

natural regeneration;

formation of a reference ecosystem;

scientific observation.

Zone 5 helps us understand how an area develops without constant human control.

6. Landscape framework of the forest garden

Before planting productive crops, a stable framework of the territory is formed.

It includes:

watersheds;

water collection lines;

protective forest belts;

hedges;

ecological corridors;

water zones;

open meadows;

roads;

fire breaks;

natural kernels;

utility sites.

The framework defines the basic structure of the system for decades and centuries.

Productive plantings may change, but water, road and protective infrastructure must be designed with a longer time horizon.

7. Design of water system

Water is designed before the main plantings.

It is necessary to determine:

where does the water come from;

where is she moving;

where it accumulates;

which areas dry out;

which are over-watered;

where safe watering is possible;

how will excess water be removed;

Where are the fire reserves located?

The following can be used in a forest garden:

contour plantings;

infiltration strips;

small ponds;

temporary reservoirs;

rain gardens;

safe distribution ditches;

storage tanks;

collection of water from roofs;

drip irrigation;

subsurface irrigation;

wet buffer zones.

The main goal is to create not one large irrigation system, but a distributed network of moisture movement and accumulation.

Water hierarchy

Preserve existing water.

Reduce losses.

Slow down surface runoff.

Increase water penetration into the soil.

Create distributed accumulation.

Use additional water supply.

Gradually reduce dependence on external water.

8. Soil restoration design

Different areas of the forest garden may be at different stages of soil formation.

For each zone the following is determined:

depth of the fertile layer;

density;

organic matter content;

acidity;

salinization;

soil biota;

water retention capacity;

permissible load.

Basic recovery measures:

permanent vegetation cover;

mulching;

composting;

return of leaf litter;

use of wood chips;

cover crops;

deep-rooted plants;

reduction of mechanical processing;

creation of fungal communities;

controlled movement of equipment.

In a forest garden, soil should not be viewed as a consumable production material. It is an independent living system and the project's main asset.

9. Multi-tiered structure

The forest garden is designed vertically and horizontally.

The classic model can include from seven to ten tiers.

The first tier is tall trees

Functions:

formation of a general microclimate;

wind protection;

deep extraction of water and minerals;

production of wood, nuts or fruits;

creating an environment for birds.

Examples of functions, not a universal list of types:

tall nut-bearing trees;

large fruit;

nitrogen-fixing trees;

local forest-forming species;

long-lasting protective trees.

The second tier is medium-sized fruit trees.

Basic productive level.

May include:

apple trees;

pears;

plums;

cherries;

apricots;

persimmon;

citrus;

other species depending on the climate.

The third tier is low trees

It includes:

dwarf forms;

small fruit trees;

bush-like woody crops;

species that tolerate partial shade.

The fourth tier is shrubs

Functions:

berry production;

space filling;

soil protection;

animal feed;

attracting pollinators;

formation of hedges.

Fifth tier - herbaceous perennials

Includes:

perennial vegetables;

medicinal plants;

aromatic herbs;

flowering honey plants;

plants that accumulate elements;

forage crops.

The sixth tier is groundcover plants.

They:

protect the soil;

reduce evaporation;

suppress some of the unwanted vegetation;

create living mulch;

provide food for insects.

The seventh tier is root crops

They use underground space.

Can perform:

nutritional function;

biological loosening;

accumulation of substances;

formation of organic matter.

The eighth tier is vines.

Vertical supports are used.

Includes:

grape;

actinidia;

hops;

climbing legumes;

other fruit and industrial species.

Vines should not excessively shade or damage supporting trees.

The ninth tier is mushrooms.

The mushroom system includes:

mycorrhizal fungi;

saprotrophic fungi;

edible cultivated species;

wood-decomposing fungi.

Fungi ensure the processing of organic matter and bind the roots to the soil.

The tenth tier is aquatic and coastal plants.

A separate structure is formed around the reservoirs:

underwater plants;

floating species;

coastal grasses;

moisture-loving shrubs;

trees of damp places.

These zones purify water, create habitats and enhance biodiversity.

10. Designing for sunlight

Each plant requires a certain amount of light.

When planning, the following are taken into account:

trajectory of the sun;

seasonal sun height;

direction of slopes;

future height of trees;

crown width;

foliage density;

shading duration;

reflection of light from water and structures.

In the Northern Hemisphere, tall trees are typically positioned so they don't create permanent shade for primary crops. However, in hot climates, partial shade can be an advantage.

Light conditions should be assessed for the mature state of the plantings, and not only at the time of planting.

11. Wind design

Wind affects:

evaporation;

cooling;

plant damage;

salt transfer;

spread of fire;

pollination;

seed transfer;

erosion.

The wind protection system can include several tiers:

Low grasses and shrubs.

Medium dense shrubs.

Trees of medium height.

Tall, stable trees.

Indoor productive plantings.

A completely impermeable wall creates strong turbulence. A living barrier should partially allow air to pass through and gradually slow it down.

Protective strips are especially important:

on watersheds;

on open plains;

along the coast;

around young plantings;

near utility areas;

from the side of dry and cold winds.

12. Plant guilds

A guild is a group of plants and other organisms that are organized around a central species and that support each other.

The center of the guild can be:

fruit tree;

nut tree;

valuable local tree;

group of shrubs;

water;

mushroom culture.

Functions of guild members

The guild includes organisms that perform different tasks:

nitrogen fixation;

accumulation of minerals;

attracting pollinators;

repelling individual pests;

creating living mulch;

biological loosening;

organic production;

mushroom support;

wind protection;

food for useful animals.

One species can perform several functions.

An example of a functional tree guild

The central fruit tree is surrounded by:

berry bushes;

nitrogen-fixing plants;

deep-rooted herbs;

honey plants;

ground cover species;

aromatic plants;

mushrooms;

mulching organic matter.

The specific composition is determined by climate, soil and plant compatibility.

13. Selection of species

The selection of plants begins not with a catalogue, but with the conditions of the area.

For each type the following are assessed:

climate zone;

frost resistance;

heat resistance;

need for water;

drought resistance;

attitude to salinization;

soil requirement;

root depth;

height;

crown width;

lifespan;

fruiting period;

pollination;

tendency to illness;

ability to naturally renew;

potential invasiveness;

economic value.

Preference is given to plants that:

adapted to the local climate;

have several useful functions;

support local biota;

capable of reproducing;

do not require excessive maintenance;

resistant to predicted climate changes.

14. Native and cultivated plants

A sustainable forest garden combines native species and cultivated varieties.

Native species provide

environmental sustainability;

support for insects and birds;

adaptation to the local climate;

natural regeneration;

connection with surrounding ecosystems.

Cultivated plants provide

food productivity;

economic value;

crop diversity;

recycling capabilities;

economic income.

Cultivated species should not completely displace the natural base.

The rational structure includes:

natural core;

local protective framework;

adapted productive crops;

experimental sites;

genetic collections;

zones of natural renewal.

15. Genetic diversity

Plantations of genetically identical plants are vulnerable to:

diseases;

pests;

drought;

frosts;

climate change;

new pathogens.

Therefore it is necessary to use:

several varieties;

different rootstocks;

seed propagation of part of plants;

local forms;

old varieties;

new sustainable selections;

plants from different but compatible sources.

The following may be created on the territory:

seed groves;

mother gardens;

collections of varieties;

seed banks;

nurseries;

natural selection areas.

16. Rootstocks and grafts

The rootstock determines:

tree size;

soil resistance;

root depth;

drought resistance;

durability;

speed of entry into fruiting;

resistance to individual diseases.

Low-growing rootstocks are easy to harvest, but often require:

permanent support;

regular watering;

more fertile soil;

intensive care.

Vigorous and seed rootstocks can:

live longer;

form deep roots;

better cope with stress;

create large trees;

later begin to bear fruit.

A sustainable forest orchard can combine trees of different sizes and rootstock types.

17. Distances between plants

Spacing is determined by the mature size of the plants, not the size of the seedlings.

The following are taken into account:

crown width;

height;

root shape;

need for light;

humidity;

fertility;

technical access;

fire risk;

need for ventilation;

future thinning sequence.

Temporary denser planting is permitted if it is determined in advance:

which plants are fast-growing pioneers;

which trees will remain permanent;

when thinning will be done;

how the removed wood will be used.

Without such a plan, a temporarily dense planting turns into constant competition.

18. Lifespan of plants

The forest garden should include crops of different life cycles.

Short-term plants

Duration: one or more years.

They provide:

quick harvest;

soil cover;

early income;

organic matter.

Medium-term plants

Duration: 5–25 years.

These include:

part of the bushes;

fast-growing trees;

some fruit crops;

pioneer protective plants.

Long-lasting plants

Duration: 25–100 years or more.

This:

main fruit trees;

nut-bearing;

large protective species;

long-lived native trees.

Ancestral trees

The lifespan can be several centuries.

They create the foundation of the landscape for future generations.

The project must take into account that the first generations of people create conditions for plants, the yield and ecological value of which will be revealed much later.

19. Planting sequence

Not all tiers are planted at the same time.

Preparatory stage

Created:

water system;

paths;

fencing;

temporary protective strips;

cover crops;

nursery;

soil cover.

The first stage

Landing:

hardy pioneer trees;

shrubs;

nitrogen-fixing plants;

windbreaks;

ground cover crops.

The second stage

Added:

main fruit and nut trees;

permanent shrubs;

honey plants;

deep-rooted plants.

The third stage

The following are being formed:

shade-tolerant tiers;

mushroom cultures;

vines;

forest perennials;

aquatic communities.

The fourth stage

After the system has stabilized, the following are added:

more demanding crops;

rare varieties;

specialized productive plants;

new experimental guilds.

20. The role of the nursery

Having your own nursery reduces the cost of the project and preserves adapted planting material.

The nursery can produce:

tree seedlings;

shrubs;

perennial herbs;

local species;

rootstocks;

grafted plants;

plants for remediation;

planting material for sale.

Benefits of local growing:

adaptation to climate;

quality control;

the ability to select stable forms;

reducing transport stress;

preservation of rare varieties;

gradual scaling of the project.

21. Pollination

For a sustainable harvest, it is necessary to consider:

compatibility of varieties;

flowering time;

presence of pollinating insects;

wind;

distance between plants;

weather conditions during flowering.

Created:

continuously blooming stripes;

wild bee habitats;

areas with early and late honey plants;

chemical-protected areas;

water points for insects;

areas of untouched soil;

dead wood and hollow stems.

The pollination system should not rely on just one type of insect.

22. Biological plant protection

Plant health is determined by the state of the entire system.

Key measures:

selection of resistant varieties;

sufficient distance;

ventilation;

plant diversity;

soil health;

balanced diet;

presence of birds and beneficial insects;

sanitary control;

removal of dangerous sources;

quarantine of new material;

disease monitoring.

Chemical protection, if necessary, should be:

local;

justified;

minimal;

compatible with pollinators;

accompanied by observation.

The main goal is not the complete destruction of all pests, but to prevent their uncontrolled mass development.

23. Invasive species

A plant should not be introduced into a forest garden solely on the basis of its rapid growth or high productivity.

Before administration, the following are assessed:

ability to spread;

number of seeds;

vegetative propagation;

the presence of natural limitations;

impact on native species;

difficulty of removal;

legislative restrictions.

Potentially invasive plants are grown only:

in controlled experimental areas;

in the presence of a restriction system;

with regular monitoring;

if it is legally permissible.

24. Animals in the forest garden

Animals can perform useful functions:

regulate grass stand;

recycle organic matter;

fertilize the soil;

destroy some of the pests;

spread seeds;

produce food products.

Possible:

bees;

poultry;

ducks;

sheep;

goats;

cattle;

working animals;

fish in individual water systems.

Their use should be measured.

Excessive load leads to:

soil compaction;

destruction of undergrowth;

water pollution;

erosion;

damage to the bark;

disappearance of undergrowth.

Young trees are sure to protect themselves.

25. Road system

Roads and paths are designed before mass plantings.

They must ensure:

access of people;

harvesting;

fire safety;

passage of equipment;

maintenance of water bodies;

evacuation;

observation;

transportation of products.

Should be avoided:

cutting water flows;

direction of flow along the road;

excessive compaction;

fragmentation of natural nuclei;

placement of roads in the most fertile and humid areas.

The road should be part of the water and landscape system, not an alien element.

26. Economic infrastructure

A forest garden may include:

nursery;

greenhouses;

compost sites;

composition;

cold storage;

drying rooms;

processing;

packaging line;

workshop;

reservoirs;

solar power system;

weather station;

digital sensors;

training center.

The infrastructure is placed so that:

do not pollute water;

do not occupy naturally valuable areas;

have convenient access;

use collected rainwater;

return safe organic residues;

do not create constant noise and light pollution.

27. Fire-resistant design

The forest garden should not turn into a continuous mass of dry vegetation.

The fire system includes:

mosaic structure;

wet areas;

reservoirs;

roads and access;

fire breaks;

managed meadows;

deadwood control;

safe placement of wood mulch;

selection of less flammable types near buildings;

water reserve.

Highly flammable materials and dry materials are not placed in dense continuous strips next to:

houses;

warehouses;

evacuation roads;

energy infrastructure.

Complete removal of all dead wood is also undesirable. A balance must be struck between ecological value and fire safety.

28. Climate resistance

The forest garden is designed not only for the current climate, but also for possible future conditions.

It is necessary to take into account:

increase in temperature;

increasing the duration of droughts;

extreme precipitation;

new pests;

shift in flowering time;

late frosts;

strengthening of winds;

changes in water availability.

Adaptation measures:

diversity of species;

different flowering periods;

deep-rooted plants;

distributed water storage;

several varieties of one crop;

combination of local and adapted species;

preservation of seed material;

experimental sites;

gradual replacement of unstable crops.

29. Economic structure of the forest garden

A sustainable forest garden should not depend on just one crop.

Income can be generated from several streams:

fresh fruit;

walnuts;

berries;

mushrooms;

medicinal plants;

honey;

planting material;

seeds;

processed foods;

dried fruits;

oils;

drinks;

spices;

wood products;

educational programs;

excursions;

scientific projects;

environmental services.

Different crops begin to produce income at different times.

Example of a temporary structure

This approach reduces the financial risk of waiting for large trees to mature.

30. Cooperative model

A large forest garden can be developed as a cooperative system.

Participants may be responsible for:

nursery;

landing;

care;

beekeeping;

collection;

processing;

storage;

logistics;

scientific monitoring;

education;

tourism;

sales.

The cooperative model allows:

distribute costs;

combine competencies;

share equipment;

create a sustainable market;

organize an insurance fund;

pass on responsibility between generations.

Income distribution rules should take into account not only current work but also the long-term contribution to the restoration of the territory.

31. Crop management

The harvest is planned at the stage of plant selection.

It is necessary to determine:

ripening periods;

volume;

collection methods;

availability of trees;

labor demand;

storage capabilities;

processing methods;

sales market;

use of substandard products.

It is preferable to distribute the harvest by season in order to:

avoid simultaneous ripening of all products;

reduce the workload on employees;

extend the sales period;

provide food to the community;

use equipment more efficiently.

32. Recycling and closed loop

Some of the produce must be processed close to where it is grown.

Possible:

drying;

freezing;

fermentation;

juice production;

oil production;

jam;

pasta;

powders;

herbal preparations;

feed mixtures;

composting of residues.

Organic residues are divided into:

compost safe;

suitable for feeding;

suitable for biogas;

woody;

infected with diseases;

contaminated and requiring separate processing.

The goal is to minimize waste and return safe substances to the cycle.

33. Digital model of a forest garden

For large projects, a digital twin is created.

It may contain:

a map of each tree;

view;

variety;

rootstock;

landing date;

origin;

state;

productivity;

water consumption;

diseases;

work performed;

test results;

connection with the plant guild.

Additional layers:

soil moisture;

water flows;

temperature;

wind;

state of water bodies;

biodiversity;

fire risk;

crop ripening;

logistics routes.

Technology should help people see the system, but not replace direct observation of nature.

34. Stages of forest garden development

Stage 0. Preparation

diagnostics;

soil and water analysis;

defining goals;

zoning;

infrastructure design.

Stage 1. Territory protection

cessation of erosion;

fencing;

grazing regulation;

wind protection;

secure access.

Stage 2. Water and soil restoration

stock management;

cover crops;

mulch;

compost;

biological loosening;

development of soil life.

Stage 3. Formation of the frame

protective trees;

main long-lasting types;

water zones;

road network;

natural corridors.

Stage 4. Creating productive guilds

fruit;

nut-bearing;

shrubs;

herbs;

mushrooms;

vines.

Stage 5. Development of the economy

collection;

processing;

storage;

sales;

training;

cooperative.

Stage 6. Self-renewal

natural growth;

propagation of resistant plants;

internal circulation of organic matter;

reducing dependence on irrigation;

adaptation of the structure.

35. Monitoring of the forest garden

The following are assessed annually:

survival rate;

increase;

fruiting;

plant health;

natural regeneration;

soil condition;

humidity;

water consumption;

pollinators;

pests;

birds;

fungal activity;

fire load;

economic efficiency.

Every 5–10 years the following are reviewed:

zoning;

density;

need for thinning;

composition of species;

water balance;

climate risks;

economic model.

The project must remain adaptive.

36. Stability criteria

A forest garden can be considered to be developing in a sustainable direction if:

the need for external watering is reduced;

the soil accumulates organic matter;

there is no active erosion;

the number of tiers increases;

biodiversity is expanding;

plants regenerate naturally;

the harvest is distributed among different crops;

there is no dependence on one product;

native species are supported;

the need for chemical protection is reduced;

the system is going through unfavorable years;

There is a responsible community of custodians.

37. Basic design errors

The following mistakes should be avoided:

mass planting until water is restored;

selection of species only at market price;

use of one variety;

all trees are of the same age;

overly dense plantings without a thinning plan;

lack of access for collection;

ignoring the mature size of the crowns;

planting tall trees on the wrong side;

lack of pollinators;

dependence on one water source;

complete removal of natural vegetation;

use of potentially invasive species;

lack of crop processing;

underestimation of costs for the first years;

lack of a long-term custodian;

the desire to obtain the maximum harvest before the formation of the ecosystem.

38. Forest garden passport

Each project zone receives a passport.

General information

square;

coordinates;

owner;

management organization;

climate;

relief;

soil;

water.

Environmental data

natural class;

succession stage;

biodiversity;

valuable species;

risks;

environmental restrictions.

Project structure

functional area;

tiers;

guilds;

roads;

water bodies;

protective strips;

infrastructure.

Plants

types;

varieties;

rootstocks;

quantity;

layout plan;

planting dates;

appointment.

Management

watering;

mulching;

pruning;

thinning;

protection;

collection;

monitoring.

Economy

cost;

expected products;

harvest timing;

processing;

markets;

responsible participants.

39. Forest garden as a heritage

A forest garden with a lifespan of 150–300 years cannot be designed only for the current owner.

It should provide for:

change of tree generations;

training new custodians;

data archiving;

preservation of varieties;

infrastructure upgrade;

legal protection of land;

financial reserves;

mechanisms for transferring responsibility.

Each generation receives a system from the previous one, improves it and passes it on.

Therefore, success is measured not only by the harvest, but also by whether the land has become:

more fertile;

more humid;

more diverse;

more stable;

safer;

more valuable for future generations.

40. Final DREVO model

Designing a sustainable forest garden combines:

**diagnostics of the territory

restoration of water regime

development of living soil

succession management

multi-tiered structure

plant guilds

genetic diversity

protection of biodiversity

productive farming

cooperation

long-term storage.**

The main product of a forest garden is not a single fruit, nut or plant.

Its main product becomessustainable living area, which simultaneously:

creates food;

accumulates fertility;

regulates water;

supports animals;

creates a microclimate;

gives a person a job;

preserves natural and cultural heritage;

continues to develop after the change of generations.

The final principle

A sustainable forest garden is not a garden that resembles a forest. It is a managed ecosystem in which natural processes and human labor are combined to create long-term life, fertility, and the common good.